It is common knowledge that Tang Xianzu (1550–1616) was the most distinguished dramatist and writer in the Ming dynasty. As a paragon of literary brilliance in Chinese culture, his accomplishments are often juxtaposed with those of William Shakespeare in Britain. The year of 1616 saw the departure of these two great playwrights of the East and the West, as well as that of the greatest Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes. It was of course a coincidence in history, yet the coincidence does leave boundless room for imagination for generations that follow. After four centuries, we are now reverently commemorating their contributions to human civilisation.

The dramatic writing of Tang Xianzu spanned more than 20 years – from The Legend of the Purple Flute (in 34 episodes, incomplete) written during his prime years to The Story of Handan in his twilight years. The Four Dreams at Linchuan (also known as The Four Dreams of Yuming Tang) is the most famous collection of full-length plays created by Tang. In chronological order, they are The Legend of the Purple Hairpin (in 53 episodes), The Peony Pavilion (in 55 episodes), The Dream of Nanke (in 44 episodes) and The Story of Handan. These four masterpieces became widely acclaimed in late Ming period and were repeatedly staged throughout the years. After becoming household names, they have been warmly admired by audiences until this date. The Peony Pavilion, in particular, has become very popular in various regional opera genres across China. Its profound influence is manifested by the countless performances nowadays in different forms. Compared with his plays, Tang Xianzu’s full career of literary creation lasted much longer. Starting from the first poem -- After the Chaos (AD 1561) in his virgin collection of poems Early Scribblings at Red Spring – and ending with The Seven Poems of Farewell to the World and A Chant of Fleeting Passage of Time (1616), both written soon before his demise, Tang’s writings as a whole spanned 55 years. Therefore, while commemorating Tang Xianzu, we must bear in mind that he was more than a playwright. Turning over the pages of Collected Writings from Yuming Tang, we see clearly that Tang is a prolific poet well versed in various genres of literature. He produced a long list of outstanding works, including fu or poetic prose, prefaces, tablet inscriptions, accounts of events, and eight-part essays.

Since there are only limited studies on Tang Xianzu, discussions about the writer have basically focused on the texts of The Four Dreams at Linchuan. The overall accomplishments of his literary creations and the cultural significance embedded within, as a result, could be easily overlooked. To understand Tang Xianzu, one must know well his time and social background; the growth of his ideas and his unique artistic perspectives; the twists and turns in the poet’s life; the choices he made for his life; the setbacks he ran into, and how he transcended cynicism to settle down to elegant poetry and prose in addition to timeless plays, which in turn sublimated into the exploration and pursuit of cultural significance of human beings. It is generally agreed that understanding the time and background of a piece of writing and knowing the authors’ creative motivation and their mind sets and contexts only allow us to grasp the outer rim of a literary piece; the approach does not fully explain the artistic achievements of the writing. However, faced with widely recognised ageless classics, we must look into the life journey, the Zeitgeist and the creative process of the author, so as to fully comprehend the multi-layered connotation embedded in the formation of a classic text. A diversified and multi-faceted exploratory approach is the only way to get a glimpse into the brilliance and vibrancy that radiate from the surface of a classic text; that is the only way to reveal how the artistic use of writing could transform words that we use on a daily basis into the “flower petals raining from the sky” as seen in literature. All this has been possible because the wealth of artistic traditions is condensed with profound cultural significance, which are manifested via the authors’ artistic ingenuity and their visions that traverses a particular time and place. The aspirations to pursue the fine qualities in human nature in literary writing will be constantly uncovered by subsequent generations. That is also why people are always amazed by classics – readers treasure timeless writings because they get inspiration from the spirit that transcends eras and lands. Drawing on the thriving vitality that continues to stun the world throughout the intervening centuries, readers are able to evaluate their own purpose of life.

Tang Xianzu was born to a wealthy family in Linchuan of Fuzhou in Jiangxi Province. He studied under Luo Rufang, a master scholar in the Wang Yangming school of Confucianism. Tang firmly believed that the school’s principle of “zhi liangzhi” – the unimpeded activation of conscientiousness, benevolence and righteousness – is the way to become close to the ancient sages. He recognised an ontic self with the “innate knowledge of the innocent children”, and believed that truth could only be reached by freeing the mind and responding to nature’s course. Having earned his name as a successful writer in his youth, he was supposed to possess extraordinary talent that would bring about a bright future. However, Tang was disliked by Zhang Juzheng, Prime Minster of the time. Tang upheld his dignity to very high standards, and abided by his principle of neither jealousy nor greed, unwilling to bow to those in power. As a result, he failed time and again in the imperial examination. After Zhang Juzheng died, Tang Xianzu eventually earned the title of jinshi or Advanced Scholar, yet he still refused to join the circles of the ruling class. He even wrote to the emperor criticising the corrupt, incompetent officials at a critical moment, directing his blame at Shen Shixing, the then Prime Minister. Tang was subsequently demoted in retaliation for that act, yet he stood by his beliefs and upheld the values of truth, goodness and beauty. He insisted that as a person, one must be righteous; as an official, one must be fair and honest; as a writer, one must produce writings of grace and beauty; and as a playwright, one must create scripts that touch people’s hearts. His life was very much like the scripts he wrote – he witnessed the dark side of reality in the mortal world, and expressed the most romantic and deeply heartfelt aspirations. Through the lives of his characters such as Huo Xiaoyu, Du Liniang, Chunyu Fen, and a Mr Lu, we seem to experience their joys, sorrows, and vicissitudes of life that are likely to happen to ourselves. We are thus compelled to ponder, given the theme that life is but a dream, how we can grasp the real meaning of our existence as humans.

On this four hundredth anniversary of the passing of Tang and the Bard, we may be reminded to compare the literary achievements and cultural influences of the two great writers. We would also look into what made such a historical coincidence in their lives. Their passing in the same year has always intrigued Chinese and foreign opera scholars. Masaru Aoki, for example, although mistakably believing that Tang Xianzu died in 1617 – one year later than the Bard – in his History of Recent Traditional Chinese Opera; he still found that for both stars in the literary world to fall at more or less the same time was “such an unusual fact that great playwrights of the East and the West respectively were active during the same period”. Zhao Jingshen, another scholar, published the article “Tang Xianzu and Shakespeare” in 1946, pointing out five similarities between the two writers. First, they were born in the same year and then passed away in the same year; secondly, both have been considered to hold the highest position in the theatrical scene; thirdly, both based their play writing on stories told by other authors; fourthly, they both broke the old rules of drama of their time; and lastly, they both produced the saddest and most touching plays. Mr Zhao’s observation was largely correct, but the argument was not quite accurate. Although both died in the same year, the Bard was born in 1564, namely 14 years later than Tang, who was born in 1550. In 1959, Tian Han visited the “Tablet at Yuming Hall of the Tang’s” in Linchuan, Jiangxi Province, when he wrote a poem that compared Du Liniang (female protagonist in The Peony Pavilion) and Juliet (that in Romeo and Juliet). With deep sympathy for the love-yearning female leads, the poem praised the beautiful writing of the great playwrights. It also pointed out that Tang Xianzu and Shakespeare rightly made a brilliant match, as Du Liniang and Juliet did. Xu Shuofang wrote in 1964 an article entitled “Tang Xianzu and Shakespeare” (published in 1978), presenting a much more in-depth discussion, and highlighting the fact that although Tang Xianzu and Shakespeare came from the same period of time, their theatrical traditions were significantly different. Tang wrote lyric phrases and poetic lines according to pre-set scores and rhythmic rules, while Shakespeare wielded his literary talent in a more open genre of drama. Xu found that Tang Xianzu was allowed a much more difficult and complex milieu for his creative writing than that enjoyed by the Bard. In 1986 and 1987, Xu Shuofang made two more explorations of Tang Xianzu and Shakespeare, relating the playwrights to the backgrounds of history and culture in the East and the West respectively. He also pointed out that the Ming Dynasty, in which Tang Xianzu lived and wrote, was much more closed and lagging behind as compared with to the Elizabethan Age for Shakespeare. Therefore, it was much more difficult – and hence much more admirable – for Tang Xianzu to have created the character of Du Liniang in “The Peony Pavilion”, who was so brave in pursuing her own happiness.

The comparisons of the backgrounds of Tang and the Bard in previous studies have missed one point – they have never explored the so-called “early globalisation” faced by Eastern and Western civilisations during the 16^th century against the background of global history. The historical “cross section” or the “same period” for Tang and the Bard, i.e. late Ming Dynasty in China and the Elizabethan Age in England, saw the birth of a burgeoning commodity economy. Towns and cities were expanding and societies were becoming open-minded; academic ideas and culture and art were vibrant. There were changes and deconstruction of the class system; the phenomena of wealth accumulation and wealth disparity also co-existed. I wrote some 10 years ago to argue that this should be observed both from a “cross section” of societies and from the progress of of history. Societies at such a historical juncture were filled with new aspirations and new setbacks, which broadened the horizon for people’s mind and emotions and offered a “brave new world” for dramatic creation. It is noteworthy that from the second half of the 16^th century to the 17^th century, a large number of scholar-officials who belonged to literati took part in Chinese play writing. Unknowingly or half-knowingly, they brought the conflicts of ideas and powers from the changes in society into drama – the imaginary theatre for life situations – through stimulated visions and setbacks. The great accomplishments of Tang Xianzu came from his talented writing, revealing the shifts in society and its cultural ideas, highlighting the individuals’ awareness of their purpose in lives, and pointing out the fact that in pursuing happiness, one must be determined and persistent. In this sense, Tang shared a very similar environment for imagination and creation with the Bard, though the latter lived in a relatively more open society.

Furthermore, the “vertical section” representing of the macro-development of global history over the past four centuries shows the rising, strengthening and expanding of the West, as well as its hegemony and the shaping of “the world system”. At the same time, in the fields of culture, from the Renaissance and Reformation to Enlightenment, the “vernacular movement” led by the intellectuals began in various regions across the world. . Drama has also transformed from moral plays of a religious nature to the “new drama” that reflects changes in society and real-life situations. Starting in the 19^th century, the Bard of England gradually became a global Shakespeare along with the rise of the British Empire, affecting people’s sentiments and the way they look at life over the course of modernisation. Looking back at the historical and cultural changes in China, one could see very different circumstances. The open-mindedness in academic ideas and culture that emerged in the late-Ming period gradually declined in the early Qing Dynasty years. During their consecutive reigns, the three Emperors of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong made vigorous efforts at a draconian rule and established the master plan for the Qing Empire. At the same time, they launched persecution campaigns against writers to crack down on liberal thought in society, and restructured the social system and moral order to ensure a closed and conservative ambience in society. Culture and art in early Qing years were only an extension of the remainder from the late-Ming period. There was no longer a basis for sustainable growth that would stem from the grass roots. China’s “vernacular movement” did not occur until the late Qing and early Republican years, when Western ideas were introduced into the country. At that time, the main forces of societal progress had evolved into a powerful anti-traditionalist wave that combined with modern cultures of the West – the wave was to discard all things traditionally Chinese, including Chinese opera. While Tang’s literary works still retain their own timeless value and significance, they too have almost vanished like bubbles over the past 100 years as the torrents of cultural ideas in modern China rushed and raged.

Compared with the numerous plays that Shakespeare wrote, Tang Xianzu’s repertoire was a smaller one, and his narratives and characterisation were done in a narrower way. Yet, Tang’s works feature a stronger lyricism, which is inherent in the traditions of Chinese literati. The internal emotions of his characters were transformed into exquisite poetry. His works focused on the expression of truth and love, which fully corresponded to the personal life of Tang Xianzu himself. In terms of poetry and prose, Tang Xianzu was undoubtedly a much more prolific and accomplished writer than Shakespeare. His writings offer a wealth of literary and intellectual materials yet to be explored and studied by scholars. Four hundred years after Tang and the Bard passed away, we are now reviewing the cultural evolution of both the East and the West. Perhaps one could say that Shakespeare, a professional playwright of the Elizabethan Age, brilliantly inherited the explorer’s spirit of people in the Renaissance era. His literary exuberance resembles roses that blossomed in summer; he was an ingenious writer-actor who shined in Western culture. Tang Xianzu, on the other hand, was a literary genius and gentleman with lofty ideas of late Ming period. He was an heir to the refined tradition of Chinese culture. Tang gave off a pure, delicate scent, just like the white camellia planted outside of his study. He dedicated all his lifetime to a culture that nourishes man’s personality. As a cultured gentleman refined with Buddhist, Confucianist and Taoist ideas, Tang Xianzu was also a naturally born poet-playwright. Four hundred years have passed, yet the images of Tang and the Bard have become even more relevant and full of significance. They are now both symbols for people who take them as sources of ideas to help them reflect upon the purpose of their own existence. They invite us to explore beauty and noble aspirations. We are fortunate to have them, whose ideas deserve our contemplation. Life is short, and politics is transient; culture and art alone can last for long.

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Tang Xianzu (1550-1616), also known by his courtesy name Yireng and secondary name Hairuo, was from Fuzhou Linchuan in Jiangxi Province and was widely known as Mr Linchuan while he signed himself as Taoist Qingyuan. He was born in the 29^th year of Emperor Shizong’s Jiajing era in Ming Dynasty and died in the 44^th year of Emperor Shenzong’s Wanli era, having gone through the three eras of Jiajing, Longqing and Wanli. Tang was a descendant of Yan Wengui from Tang Dynasty but the family name was changed from Yan to Tang owing to the naming taboo of Emperor Taizu in Song Dynasty.

Tang was born into a family of scholars; his grandfather Tang Maozhao was fond of the Taoist philosophy while his father Tang Shangxian was a knowledgeable Confucian. Gifted and intelligent, Tang was able to make couplet at the age of five and was well-read since a young age. He was ranked the 8^th scholar in the provincial examination at 21 and published his first collected poems Hongquan Yicao at 26, followed by another one Yongzao (lost) the subsequent year. At 28, together with friends Xie Jiuzi, Wu Shizhi and Ceng Yuexiang, he wrote his first chuanqi play The Legend of the Purple Flute which was never completed with 34 parts extant. Being upright and impartial, Tang refused to yield to the pressure exerted by the powerful court official Zhang Juzheng and thus failed in the imperial examination repeatedly. Eventually, he was honoured as the 211^th scholar in the three grades of degree at 34 and appointed to posts as academic chair at Taichang Temple (The Ministry of ceremonies) in Nanjing, secretary at the Eastern Palace (The Ministry of Royal Affairs) and clerical officer in the Ministry of Rites in succession. At 38, he rewrote The Legend of the Purple Flute as The Legend of the Purple Hairpin. As he was outspoken in admonishment, he had to face a rugged career path and ended up resigning from his office at 49. Upon return to his homeland in Linchuan, he led a reclusive life in Yuming Tang and wrote The Peony Pavilion Reincarnation, The Dream of Nanke and The Story of Handan. He died at 67 and was buried at the ancestral graveyard at Mount Lingzhi in the eastern Linchuan city.

The extant works include plays The Legend of the Purple Flute, The Legend of the Purple Hairpin, The Peony Pavilion (also known as The Reincarnation), The Dream of Nanke and The Story of Handan, as well as collected poems and essays Hongquan Yicao, Wenji Youcao and Yumingtang Collection.

The Four Dreams at Linchuan refer to the four plays; The Legend of the Purple Hairpin, The Peony Pavilion, The Dream of Nanke and The Story of Handan. There are dream sequences in all the four plays or rather they are the fruit of painstaking labour of Tang’s whole life, referring the dreams of his life, thus collectively known as The Four Dreams at Linchuan. The Four Dreams contain profound ideological substance where Tang used the format of illusive dreams to express distinct value orientation.

Neo-Confucianism was prevalent in the Ming society at the time. It advocated the principle of “reason over desire” and imposed numerous restrictions upon women in particular where they were subjected to the teachings of traditional classics like Nu Jian (Exemplary Behaviour of Women), Nei Ze (Domestic Rules) and Nu Xun (Lessons for Women). Chastity memorial arches were erected to honour chaste women but in fact they were shackles binding women’s freedom. As such, when The Legend of the Purple Hairpin and The Peony Pavilion came into being, both of which recognized the value of love and glorified its pursuit, it stirred up immense response in the society. The Peony Pavilion was especially influential. Advocating desire over reason and liberation of the individual, it caused ripples to spread across the Ming feudal society. Tang Xianzu was thereby established as the great Chinese playwright.

The Dream of Nanke and The Story of Handan are also criticisms towards the darkness and corruption of the Ming bureaucracy. Both were composed after Tang resigned from office and returned to his homeland as reflections of the corrupt feudal bureaucracy of the Ming Dynasty. In both plays, the author revealed in depth the social reality from the monarch to the bureaucrats. Through the endings connected to the renouncing thoughts of Buddhist and Taoism, they reflect the author’s frustration and despair towards the political situation and the imperial court.

The Legend of the Purple Hairpin includes total 53 parts in 2 volumes, depicts the sadness of parting and the joy of reunion between scholar Li Yi and Huo Xiaoyu. Tang Xianzu’s first work should have been The Legend of the Purple Flute but due to political troubles, he stopped writing it at the 34^th part. Later when he was academic chair at Taichang Temple in Nanjing, he modified The Legend of the Purple Flute with deletion and refinement and renamed it The Legend of the Purple Hairpin. The entire play was finished in the 15^th year of the Wanli era. The Legend of the Purple Hairpin is therefore Tang Xianzu’s first completed chuanqi play. It is mainly based on the Tang chuanqi play Tale of Huo Xiaoyu by Jiang Fang with part of the plot referenced on Taisong Xuanhe Yishi (Collected Storytelling Script in Song Dynasty Xuanhe era).

The Legend of the Purple Hairpin is famous for its richness and splendour. Modern Chinese Opera theorist Wu Mei has once remarked, “Linchuan’s Purple Hairpin is splendid to the utmost.” The lyrics are flamboyant while the emotion is rich and colourful in particular the 25^th part; Farewell at Yang Pass. “Courtyard of blossomy rain is trapped in regret, the waterside underbrush enveloped in sadness. The loving couple is separated, hesitating beyond branches of flower. Let me tap the hairpin and call upon the parrot. I folded up the bed sheets as I closed my sweet memories of conjugal love.” The language used is extravagant and splendid. It has thus been listed as “the flamboyant one” by Ming playwright Qi Biaojia in his work Qu Pin (Commentary of Operas).

In the essay The Purple Hairpin Inscription, Tang Xianzu glorified the ideas of love and chivalry by saying “Huo Xiaoyu is a devoted lover; the man-in-yellow (imperial envoy) is a chivalrous man.” In the original work The Story of Huo Xiaoyu, Li Yi has been characterized as heartless and ungrateful while Xiaoyu turned love into hatred and swore to become a spiteful ghost after death to take revenge. However in The Legend of the Purple Hairpin, there is the addition of the evil character, Grand Commandant Lu who set on sabotaging the love between Li and Huo. The image of Li Yi as the heartless man has thus been changed while Xiaoyu has also been turned into a faithful and devoted lover. Portrayal of the man-in-yellow is also enhanced and foreshadowing his chivalrous behaviour highlighted to enrich the entire plot.

The Plot

Longxi scholar Li Yi goes to admire lanterns at the Lantern Festival and encounters the beautiful and talented Huo Xiaoyu who is the illegitimate daughter of Prince Huo. They fall in love at first sight. Li proposes, using the purple hairpin dropped accidentally by Xiaoyu as the love token, and they get married happily. Soon afterwards Li Yi is awarded the champion in imperial examination. Powerful court official Grand Commandant Lu tries to force Li to become his son-in-law and often spite him. With Lu’s sabotaging effort, Li Yi is sent away to the frontier as advisor; first to Yumen Pass and later to Mengmen. After return, Li is put under house arrest by Lu. Meanwhile, Lu spreads the rumour of Xiaoyu being remarried and Li being married into the Lu family in an effort to separate the loving couple. Fortunately with the righteous help of the man-in-yellow (imperial envoy), the couple finally reunites and the truth revealed. Li Yi and Huo Xiaoyu reconcile and retie the marriage knot.

The Peony Pavilion (also known as The Reincarnation), total 55 parts in 2 volumes, was completed in the 26^th year of the Wanli era. It depicts the tragic departure and love story of Liu Mengmei and Du Liniang. Tang Xianzu has once said, “Among the four dreams, I am most proud of The Peony Pavilion”. The Peony Pavilion is the most outstanding among the four works. It has been recorded that once The Peony Pavilion was published, it became a household name and almost made Tale of the West Chamber go on sale.

In the essay The Peony Pavilion Inscription, the author has declared that the play was based on the story of Li Zhongwen and Feng Xiaojiang’s children. “Prefect Du’s story is a modification of the story about the children of Jin Wudou Prefect Li Zhongwen and Guangzhou Prefect Feng Xiaojiang.” However, the real reference should be from the storytelling script Du Liniang Returning from Death as a substantial part of the plot is adopted from it. Compared with the storytelling script, The Peony Pavilion not only has major changes in plot and description, the theme and ideology are also immensely upgraded.

The Peony Pavilion is not simply a romantic love story, it is a drama filled with the elements of sadness, happiness, farce and fun. The first half sees happiness amid sadness whereas the latter half the other way round. Du Liniang is the darling daughter of a noble family who has been submitted to the strict rules of the feudal society. Just for seeking the freedom to love, she has to sacrifice her life. It is a personal tragedy and also a family and social tragedy. Despite the sad and distressful plot, there is the insertion of the fight between the vivacious naughty maid Chunxiang and the pedantic old scholar Chen Zuiliang. Coupled with side characters like Taoist Nun Shi, it makes the play sad and happy, farcical and funny at the same time.

The Plot

The story takes place in the Southern Song Dynasty. Du Bao, the Prefect of Jiangxi Nanan, has an only daughter Du Liniang who is both beautiful and talented. Du Bao invites the pedantic old scholar Chen Zuiliang to teach Liniang the classic, Book of Odes but Liniang is inspired by the ode Guanju (Cry of Osprey) which awakened her youthful yearning. While her father is away on business, Liniang sneaks out to tour the back garden and dreams of a secret encounter with a young scholar. Since then she yearns for love and eventually dies. She is buried beneath a plum tree in the garden with a self-portrait stored under the Taihu stone. When Du Bao is transferred to Huaiyang later, he builds a tomb and the Plum Blossom Temple for Liniang in the garden. Three years later, Lingnan scholar Liu Mengmei stays at the temple for the night on his way to attend the imperial examination and finds the self-portrait of Liniang. He then has a secret encounter with the spirit of the girl in the portrait. Liu digs up the tomb and Liniang is reincarnated and brought back to life. The two get married and go to Linan together for Liu to attend the imperial examination. Due to the invasion of Jin troops, announcement of the examination result is delayed. Meanwhile, Liu goes to Huaiyang to meet Du Bao but is treated as a swindler and tomb-raider. Du Bao refuses adamantly to admit Liniang’s resurrection and denies their marriage. The matter is brought before the imperial court. After multiple test and trial, Du Liniang and Liu Mengmei finally becomes a couple legally.

The Dream of Nanke, also known as The Nanke Dream or Tale of the Nanke Dream, is in two volumes and 44 parts and written in the summer of the 28^th year in the Wanli era. It is based on the chuanqi play Legend of the Nanke Prefect by Li Gongzuo in Tang Dynasty.

The plot of The Dream of Nanke is a reflection of the dark side in the society at the time, like corruption of local officials, rivalry within ruling parties, nepotism in official circles, abuse of the laws as money tools and a harsh criticism on the evil practices of the Ming society. It is written in the third year after Tang Xianzu resigned from his office and returned home. The background reveals the author’s profound disillusionment after his failure in the quest for political ideals.

The Plot

The story takes place in the Tang Dynasty. Ranger Chunyu Fen is skillful in martial arts but he loses his official post due to his fondness of drinking. At almost 30 with neither wife nor career, he often calls upon friends to drink to relieve the boredom. One day, he is drunk and has a dream. He dreams of entering the Dahuaian Kingdom and is invited to become the king’s son-in-law. He marries the princess Jinzhi and is granted the post as Prefect of Nanke County. Chunyu rules in Nanke for over 20 years and scores remarkable achievement earning deep respect from the masses. After the princess’s death, Chunyu returns to the imperial court and is appointed as the Prime Minister and indulges in debauchery. Jealous of Chunyu’s power, the Vice Minister Duan Gong uses astrological sign as pretext and submits a petition to impeach Chunyu. As a result, Chunyu is dismissed from court and forced to return home. Chunyu wakes up from the dream and comes to a realization. He sheds all ties with the world and becomes a Buddhist.

The Story of Handan, also known as The Dream of Handan, includes total 30 parts in two volumes. According to the author’s preface, it was written in the 29^th year of the Wanli era and based on the chuanqi play The World inside a Pillow by Shen Jiji, Tang Dynasty. The Story of Handan depicts vividly the life of a major feudal official. Through Lu Sheng’s experience of coming into fame and fortune all the way to his death, it portrays in depth the greedy and useless officials in the feudal society, the dark and corrupted examination system as well as the fatuous and debauched emperor, so as to reflect the intense struggle within the ruling parties and criticize the sanctimonious hypocrisy and the social reality in the Ming Dynasty.

Tang adopted the format of comedy to satirize the social reality of Ming Dynasty in The Story of Handan. It depicts how Lu Sheng and his wife bribe the imperial court with thousand taels of gold in order to obtain an official title while in fact it exposes the scandalous act of court official Zhang Juzheng’s abuse of power by grabbing the championship in imperial examination for his two sons and reveals the ruler’s tyranny and debauchery through Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty. The Story of Handan is the author’s relentless emotional release of his frustration and hatred towards the political situation and power of an imperial court.

The Plot

Lu Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals, arrives at Handan to look for someone to serve as flower sweeper at Mount Penglai. Lu Sheng from Shantung has a distinguished look and a bit celestial flair but he is obsessed with official title and laments his untimely birth. At the Handan Zhaozhou Bridge Inn, Lu Dongbin lends Lu Sheng a magnetic pillow for him to sleep. Lu Sheng plunges into it and dreams of marrying a lady from Cui clan of Qinghe (an eminent family in ancient China) and bribing the powerful court official to earn champion in imperial examination. He is then first appointed to go to Shanzhou to canal, afterward go on an expedition and subsequently scores meritorious achievement and is being granted dukedom. However as he has offended the powerful official Yuwen Rong, he is framed and impeached and sentenced to death. After being pardoned, he is exiled to Guimen Pass(Gate of hell) and suffers a lot of hardship. At last he is summoned back to the imperial court and acts as prime minister for 20 years and is granted the title as Duke of Zhao. His sons and grandsons are also granted official titles while the emperor grants him 24 geishas. Indulged in excessive debauchery, he falls seriously ill at 80. Before he dies, he still thinks of the posthumous title and his young son’s grant. When Lu Sheng finally wakes up from the dream, he has seen through the vanity and rights and wrongs of the world. He decides to follow the Eight Immortals to practice the Taoism.

“Love in dreams, dreams in play” describes aptly the literature of dream founded by Tang Xianzu, which set off a trend of dream replication in later generations. Written in the format of dream literature, the plays reflect the rights and wrongs as well as complicated thoughts and feelings in real life. Through the dreams, the author depicts the complicated emotions of men in the world and expresses in a dramatic way the deep thoughts behind. The author has pointed out in Erbo Magu Youshi Xu (Poem Preface) that “Love is the eternal pursuit of humanity, from love come poetry.” Works of art should be placed interest in love (or feeling). The Four Dreams at Linchuan may depict illusive dreams, more importantly they express genuine love. “Feelings in dreams may not necessarily be unreal. There are not a few dreamers in the world.” (From The Peony Pavilion Inscription)

There are dream sequences throughout the four plays. Dreams normally give people the feeling of illusion but the dreams in these plays are realer than reality. In The Legend of the Purple Hairpin, it is Huo Xiaoyu’s thoughts of love for her husband; in The Peony Pavilion, it is Du Liniang’s yearning for youthful desire; in The Dream of Nanke, it depicts Chunyu Fen’s unrealized ambition while in The Story of Handan, Lu Sheng’s desire for pleasure. All of them reflect true feelings in the world.

The author used dreams to portray feelings and merged the real world with fictional drama. The depiction of the pedantic feudal society and corrupt bureaucracy are actually reflection of the author’s harsh criticism on the social reality and imperial court at the time. The author was in fact forced to use the medium of fictional drama to express his emotions and ideals as the feudal society at that time did not allow any expression of true feelings. Restrictions of real life also fail to express his concrete ideas and thoughts freely.

William Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist in England during the Renaissance while Tang Xianzu is the most remarkable chuanqi playwright in Ming Dynasty. Both were born in feudal society of the same era, one in the West while the other in the East and coincidentally both died in the same year, 1616. Despite Tang has completed far less plays than Shakespeare, his works have brought about significant influence upon the Chinese opera circle.

Tang Xianzu has been acclaimed as “Shakespeare of the Orient”. Apart from the fact that they were born around the same time and died in the same year, they also possessed two similar classic works; Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and Tang Xianzu’s The Peony Pavilion. Way back in the 16^th century with the great geographical distance apart, there was scarcely any cultural exchange between China and England. As such there should not be any interaction or cross-influence between the two playwrights. Notwithstanding this, Romeo and Juliet and The Peony Pavilion are both depict the love stories respectively in western and eastern feudal societies and they have shared many similarities such as subject, theme, characters, dramatic conflict, structure and style. Both plays express the glorification of sublime love with a hint of enlightenment on feminism. People in later generations therefore tend to bring the two great playwrights together.

After The Four Dreams at Linchuan came into being one after another, there emerged a large batch of so-called Linchuan School of playwrights such as Zhang Jian, Ruan Dacheng, Wu Bing and so on. They held Tang’s works in high regard and used them as model in script concept, lyric style and other aspects. As a result a series of works imitating The Four Dreams at Linchuan appeared. Works like Post-The Peony Pavilion, Post-The Dream of Nanke, The Story of Handan Sequel came into being later on too. Even in famous plays of later generations such as Hong Sheng’s The Palace of Eternal Life, Kong Shangren’s The Peach Blossom Fan and the literary classic The Dream of the Red Chamber, one can still discern the influence of The Four Dreams at Linchuan.

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Monkey King Play is said to begin its long history in Tang Dynasty in a repertoire named Bai Yuan Offering Longevity Peach (also known as Bai Yuan Saving His Mother). The story tells that Bai Yuan, the white monkey, sneaked into the peach garden of Sun Bin, the famous military strategist during the Warring States period, in order to steal peaches to save his seriously-ill mother. Caught by Sun Bin, Bai Yuan, kneeling on the floor, begged Sun Bin in tears to help save his mother. Touched by the filial piety of the poor monkey, Sun Bin gave him some peaches and set him free. After eating the peaches, Bai Yuan’s mother recovered immediately. To thank Sun Bin, Bai Yuan gave Sun Bin all the books on the art of war in his collection. Sun Bin subsequently became a famous general in the Kingdom of Qi.

Monkey King Play is also called Wukongxi, so named because a majority of the repertoire is about Sun Wukong, the legendary Monkey King portrayed in the famous novel, Journey to the West. Since its debut, monkey king play has been widely performed in China and has become one of the favourite Chinese opera genres with a special cultural heritage. People love monkey king play not just because they adore the Monkey King, but also because they are attracted to the unique artistic styles of its performance. The Monkey King on stage is clever and agile. Having gone through countless artistic refinement, it has become a special performance genre in Chinese opera. Monkey king play has been performed in different Chinese opera. It can be categorised by region and defined as the southern and the northern styles. The northern style is represented by Peking Opera, while Shao Opera of Zhejiang is most widely known for the southern style monkey king play.

There are two stylistic schools of monkey king play in Peking Opera: the northern and the southern. The southern style is mainly represented by maestros Gai Jiaotian, Zhang Yipeng and Zheng Faxiang; whereas in the north, virtuosi Yang Xiaolou, Li Wanchun and Li Shaochun are the key figures. The two styles have different emphasis on the portrayal of the Monkey King. In the south, the performer is expected to act like a real monkey. Hence its emphasis is on capturing the likeness in appearance, actions and expressions. On the opposite, the northern style stresses on portraying the monkey like a human. So apart from capturing the demeanors and charm of the Monkey King, the performer has to project his super-natural image and human sentiments to the audience.

Gai Jiaotian, a native of Gaoyang, Hebei, started his theatrical career at the young age of ten. Gai’s real name is Zhang Yingjie, but he is also known as Yan Nan. At 13, he gave himself the stage name Gai Jiaotian, which states clearly his ambition to surpass the achievement of maestro artist Xiao Jiaotian, whose real name is Tan Xianpei. In order to specialize in wusheng (military male), Gai studied under the acclaimed Li Chunlai, founder of the southern wusheng style. Gai mastered the skills and style passed on to him by Li, and enriched them by drawing on the strengths of different wusheng styles in Peking and Kunqu Operas and local theatres. His brilliant martial arts skills and understanding of the behaviours of animals and nature through close observations made his performance lively, natural and captivating. His artistic qualities and unique style have given birth to the Gai wusheng style. Gai is best known for playing the role of Wu Song, the hero who killed a tiger with his bare hands in The Water Margin, and gained the title of “Living Wu Song from the South”. His famous repertoires includes Killing the Tiger, The Lion Pavilion, At Crossroads Rise, Happy Grove, The Mandarin Ducks House, and Centipede Ridge.

In 1933, Gai performed a pioneering stunt in Wreaking Havoc in Heaven: he played double whips and double rings with his legs, while playing pipa, (the lute), with his hands at the same time, which successfully conveyed the lively and colourful character of the Monkey King to the audience. Gai’s creativity took him further; in one of his performances of the Journey to the West, he brought a real camel onto stage as an animal in the heavenly stable that the Monkey King was in charge of. He performed various martial arts stunts on the camel’s back, making a great impression on his audience.

Zheng Faxiang is the son of Zheng Changtai, the artist being revered as the “real monkey”. He studied under his father and performed different monkey roles since he was a child. Interestingly, he began his career as a huadan (young female), but later switched to wusheng and monkey king play. In order to bring the Monkey King alive on stage, Zheng dug into the novel Journey to the West, studied portraits of Sun Wukong collected from different parts of China, and drew lessons from Shí'èr Xíng Quan (twelve animals shape boxing), especially the monkey shape. Through intensive studies and practices, Zheng assimilated the skills and styles passed on to him by his father with his own understanding and experience of the art, successfully bringing the Zheng style of monkey king play to a new height.

Zheng Faxiang’s style of monkey king play is different from those of the other southern wushengs. He was able to assimilate the styles and characteristics of previous well-known artists of monkey king play into his own. In his performances, you can find the power and vigour of the Shang (Heyu) style, the colour and beauty of the Yang (Xiaolou) style, the details and refinement of the Hao (Zhenji) style, and the veracity and authenticity of his own Zheng style. Zheng’s Monkey King is a breakthrough of the tradition; he is magnificent and full of momentum, brave and fierce, comical and yet serious. Zheng paid particular attention to the four methods (body, hand and foot movements, and playing of the staff), three skills (acting, speaking and singing, and making summersaults), and distinctive appearance (costumes and make-up) of the characters. Hand movements include versatile palm and fist martial arts skills, while foot movements stress on the ability to make agile cloud-leaping and cloud-walking steps. All these skills and styles fused together to form the unique artistic qualities of Zheng’s performance.

To give prominence to the Monkey King’s magnificence and power, Zheng Faxiang spoke and sang in a way that combined the vocal styles of hongsheng (red-faced male), wulaosheng (old military male) and jiazihualian (painted-face that emphasizes more on postures, movements and gestures). The golden staff used by the Monkey King as weapon was repeatedly modified to come to a version that matched the unlimited magical power of the Monkey King. Zheng also invented a peach-shaped facial pattern for himself that enabled him to change its lines and colours to fit the change of identity and personality of the Monkey King during the entire performance. Costumes used included hairy monkey-shaped headgear and broad sleeved loose-fitted robe.

Son of Yang Yuelou, Yang Xiaolou received training as a wusheng from his father and maestros Yu Jusheng and Tan Xianpei who was also his foster-father. From them he acquired different techniques and styles, and became an exponent of the Yu (Jusheng) style. He absorbed the strengths of great masters of different styles, and advocated versatility no matter the actor is playing a civil or a military role. To him, martial arts, by itself, is not the key element of his performance; rather, he used it as a tool to project a character - his state of mind and spirit, and the drama of the opera. Hence in his performances, he put equal emphasis on martial arts and non-martial arts acts, so that there would be a smooth blending of the two in both combat and non-combat repertoires. These are the characteristics of the Yang style founded by him.

Yang Xiaolou entered the opera school when he was just a child. He worked exceptionally hard at school; when the other students practised kicking 600 times, he would do it 800 to 900 times. Because of that, his shoes wore out quickly and he needed new ones almost once every 10 days. But his hard work paid off; the techniques and skills he gained at the opera school laid the foundation for his future success. Yang’s singing is outstanding among wushengs. He had a clear and sonorous voice; his singing and recitation were cadenced and rhythmical with clear articulation and rich feelings. His rendition was simple and unadorned but charming. Yang was tall, dexterous and agile; his postures and movements were elegant and graceful. Because of his superb martial arts skills, he could play excellent martial arts skills a such as changkao (generals in elaborate and heavy costumes), jianyi (archers wearing costumes with tight-fitted sleeves) and duanda (warriors in light and simple costumes). He had a style of his own when he portrayed great heroes like Zhao Yun, Gao Chong, Jiang Wei, Xiang Yu the Conqueror, and the Monkey King. Yang Xiaolou was also good at capturing the personality and emotions of the characters he played. He had a pair of expressive eyes which he used with remarkable effect. When the character had no movement, no singing or conversation on the stage, he would narrow his eyes; when the story came to a dramatic twist, he would open his eyes with vigour, creating an awe-inspiring look that stunned the entire audience.

By advocating versatility in singing, speaking, acting and combat in civil and military roles, Yang Xiaolou raised the artistic quality of wusheng performance to a new level. Many who came after him were deeply influenced by him and took him as their model. He was revered as the grandmaster of wusheng and the leading authority of his time.

Li Wanchun, an acclaimed Peking Opera artist, was from Xiongxian, Hebei. He specialized in wusheng; his excellent performance of the Monkey King earned him the title “Monkey King of the Northern Style”. At the age of seven, he accompanied his father Li Yongli (painted-face wusheng) on his tour and took part in his performances. His talent attracted the attention of the famous artist Yu Zhenting, who let him sojourn in his troupe in Beijing when he was only 12 years old. Thereafter, Li was spotted by Yang Xiaolou and Mei Lanfang and received training from both great masters. He had also stayed temporarily in Mei’s theatre company. In order to widen his skill and enrich his style and artistic quality, his father engaged many famous artists as his teachers, including Yang Ruiting, Zhang Dejun, Ma Lianliang and Ying Baolian. He had also studied Houxi from Zai Tao.

Li Wanchun had solid basic skills, a handsome look, and a loud and clear voice. He was acclaimed as “Genius Boy Actor”. He learnt his roles in civil repertoire from Yu Shuyan and military roles from Yang Xiaolou. He was a versatile actor who was good at a wide range of roles, including changkao, jianyi and duanda wushengs. He was also innovative. In his specialty – wusheng, he excelled in every aspect. His portrayal of greenwood heroes such as Wu Song and Wang Tianba was original. He was tutored by Lin Shusen and Li Hongchun on how to play Guan Yu, the fearless general in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and cleverly developed a style of his own. As to monkey king play, he had his own interpretation. To him, the aim was not to make a human look like a monkey, but the other way round. Therefore, the actor must re-enact the demeanors of the monkey king in a way that would make the audience feel his quick-wittedness, agility and high spirit without being gaudy or wild.

Li Shaochun, renowned Peking Opera artist from Bazhou, Hebei, came from a family of opera artists. His father, Li Guichun (whose stage name was Xiao Dazi), was a famous southern style actor whose talents included singing bangzi and pihuang tunes. Apart from learning from his father, Li also studied under Chen Xiuhua of the Tan (Xianpei) style and Ding Yongli of the Yang style. He became an instant hit and a lead role actor after his debut performance. Recognizing his talents, Yu Shuyan took Li as his protégé.

In his performances, Li Shaochun successfully integrated the southern style he inherited from his father and the northern style he learned from his teachers. His training under various great masters gave him an open mind that allowed him to absorb and assimilate their different artistic styles into his own. Li’s distinctive style encompassed the merits of different schools, including the charm and emphasis on the four phonetic tones of the Yu style singing, the detailed and vivid depiction of characters of maestro Zhou Xinfang, and the natural grace of Ma Lianliang. He applied the same principle to the performance of military roles by fusing the Yang and Gai styles together, with emphasis on conveying the thoughts, feelings and personality of the different characters to the audience.

Li was good at playing both civil and military roles, and innovative. One of his innovations was the assimilation of the art of laosheng (old male) and wusheng. His vocal ability was strong, his singing, full of feeling and charm. There was an element of natural grace in his postures and body movements. His martial arts skills were equally solid, good at both changkao and duanda. The heroes he portrayed were valiant and full of grandeur. His Monkey King was agile with an impressive bearing. He added stunning acrobatic routines such as sitting on the back of the chair directly after slipping under it in Wreaking Havoc in the Palace of the Dragon King and applying the pole vault technique to scale a deck of three tables in Wreaking Havoc in the Underworld to amplify the Monkey King’s dexterity. He was honored with the title of “Little Yang Monkey” for his marvelous performance.

Li Baochun, the youngest son of Li Shaochun, inherited his father’s artistic legacy and specializes in laosheng. He received tutorship from a number of masters, including Ma Lianliang, Wang Shaolou, Yang Jufen, Xu Yuanshan, Qian Yuanshun, Ru Yuanjun, Ru Shaoquan and Ma Changli. This gave him a strong foundation to develop his theatrical career and to continue the artistic aspiration of his father. Li Baochun sings with immense charm and fights with excellent execution. He insists on pursuing, exploring and innovating the art of his specialty, and has built up his own style. His martial arts skill was fully displayed in the excerpt “The Celestial Stable” of Wreaking Havoc in Heaven when he performed an extremely difficult split and played a dance-like horse whip in the air as if he was really riding on the back of a fiery steed.

Originally known as “Shaoxing Luantan”, has the common name of “Shaoxing Daban” and is one of the three major regional operatic genres of Shaoxing. Its repertoire is usually themed around kings, generals, prime ministers, as well as their battles and conquests. In the 1940s, renowned Shao Opera artists “Liulingtong” (six-year-old boy) and “Qilingtong” (seven-year-old boy) arranged and performed all 36 books of Journey to the West. They pioneered in the monkey king play of Shao Opera. The uniquely styled monkey king play of the Shao Opera features the strengths of various schools.

Shao Opera Monkey King Thrice Beats the Bony Ghost is a milestone in monkey king play of Shao Opera. It was made into a film in 1961 and distributed in 72 countries and locations. The film version received the Best Opera Film prize in the 2^nd People’s Hundred Flowers Awards in 1963. The theatre group later created and performed programmes such as The Flaming Mountain, Creating Havoc in Heaven and Earth, Sun Wukong Thrice Saves Baihuaxiu, Journey to the West (first volume), Journey to the West (second volume), Who’s the Real Monkey King and The Other Story of Bajie. All these are highly appreciated by the audience. Shao Operas Monkey King Thrice Beats the Bony Ghost and The Flaming Mountain have been performed over 2,000 times by five generations of artists in half a century. Undoubtedly, their popularity will continue.

The outstanding features of Shao Opera monkey king play can be summarized in one word: enchanting. For the personality, the emphasis is placed on “human” qualities and “human, deity and monkey” are fused into one. It is enchanting because it expresses the human side of the Monkey King, who is not just a wild monkey, but a social animal who has feelings and emotions. The audience love the humanized Monkey King, and feel close to him. This feature is seldom found in monkey king play of other types of opera.

Liulingtong’s real name is Zhang Zongyi. He was born into a family with four generations of outstanding actors of monkey king play. He began his training at the age of six, and started to perform on stage at 12, specializing in wusheng. Liu was particularly good at monkey king play; he played the Monkey King on stage in Wreaking Havoc in Heaven and The Flaming Mountain in 1953 and in film in Monkey King Thrice Beats the Bony Ghost in 1960. In order to familiarize himself with monkeys, he raised and lived with one in his home so that he could observe its movements and behaviour. In his performances, Liu was keen to reflect the Monkey King’s human aspects. His Monkey King was a man, an immortal and a monkey at the same time.

Liu loved to read Journey to the West since he was a child. Inspired by southern style of Gai Jiaotian and his son Zhang Yipeng, he incorporated their characteristics in his approach. For example, when the Monkey King was expelled by his master Tang Sanzang, he knelt and bowed to him. He performed this routine by jumping up and kneeling down repeatedly, a routine known as “overturned worship” created by him. Liu’s monkey king play was lively and full of spirit, which earned him the title “King of Southern Style Monkey King Play in China”. His artistic achievement brought far-reaching influence and great reputation to Shao Opera.

Liu Jianyang specializes in wusheng who joined the Shao Opera training class at the age of eleven, which brought him the stage name Shiyilingtong (eleven-year-old boy). He studied under Liulingtong, the Grand Master of Shao Opera Monkey King. Because of his artistic accomplishments, he is honoured as the Monkey King of Jiangnan. He is also known for his innovative spirit in make-up, costumes and acting. To him, the Monkey King is a person comprising the qualities and attributes of man, immortal and monkey, who thinks and feels like a man, moves with the agility of a monkey, and has great magical power of an immortal. Liu Jianyang likes to project the human aspects of the Monkey King. For example, most of the time in his performances, he would move with his back upright to convey the Monkey King’s human-like dignity, instead of curling it or walking on tiptoes as a monkey usually does. Only in certain circumstances would his Monkey King behave in the manner of a monkey.

Among Peking Opera face patterns, the monkey face pattern is a special category. It is a kind of pictogram, with its patterns based on descriptions of the Monkey King in fairy tales and novels. It is an important element in monkey king play, for it shows the Monkey King’s facial features and identity. Its pattern and colour may change to match the flow of the story. Each actor may create his own face pattern to match the shape of his face and his performing style. Major monkey face patterns include “upside down peach”, “reversed gourd” and “bell-shape”.

The monkey face patterns in Shao Opera are different from those in Peking Opera. Let us take the one worn by renowned Peking Opera artist of monkey king play Li Baochun as an example. He inherited the face pattern of his father Li Shaochun, which belongs to the “reversed gourd” type. Its red-coloured part narrows down below the eye sockets and then widens up again, making the red portion looks like a reversed gourd. To indicate that the Monkey King had not yet entered the the Bagua burner of the Great Supreme Lord and had not yet acquired his fiery eyes with golden pupils, Li Baochun would paint his eye sockets in pinkish colour. He would also add a short black line on each of his upper eyelid to amplify the Monkey King’s outstanding temperament.

From the face pattern of Liu Jianyang, the actor who played the Monkey King in Shao Opera “Monkey King Thrice Beats the Bony Ghost”, we find that there are no lines on the face patterns and primarily painted in red, white, black and gold over a face in Shao Opera. The eyes are outlined with black and framed by a gold border to highlight the glittering eyes of the Monkey King. This special eye makeup projects the aesthetics of sharp and bright eyes. The nostrils are painted black in the shape of a peach to make it look bigger, and white paint is used to outline the monkey face. The mouth is painted mainly in red with two white teeth in the middle. Its lips are uneven in thickness; the upper one is thinner and the lower one thicker.

Acrobatic fighting is extremely important in the characterization of the Monkey King. The harder the technique, the stronger is the esthetic effect. Making somersaults is a must in monkey king play. Every time the Monkey King enters the stage, the actor would make continuous somersaults to catch the eyes of the audience. Other highly difficult routines include “playing double staffs with extreme dexterity”, “spinning the ghost-head sword in high speed”, “swirling the purple-gold hammer like dancing” and “turning the heaven-and-earth rings with hands and feet”. In the excerpt “Stealing Peaches”, senior actors of the southern style would play their best card by using their teeth to peel the skin of a peach or an apple without breaking the skin in the process. To do this, the actor must have razor sharp teeth.

The golden staff used by the Monkey King has a special design. For example, the one used by Zheng Faxian was thick in the middle and tapered towards both ends; it was taller than him and heavy. Using it, Zheng performed various impressive routines. According to Li Wanchun, the actor who plays the Monkey King must have “chicken legs, dragon body and eagle eyes”. By this, he meant the actor must master the skill of standing on one leg like the golden chicken; never straighten up his body but curl it like a dragon; and have a pair of sharp and witty eyes as those of an eagle. Actions must be swift, brisk and full of rhythm. Only the body and the legs can slow down, but not the head or the face, otherwise, the form and spirit of the monkey will disappear.

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The art of Shandong operas can be dated back to more than 2,000 years ago in the states of the Qi and Lu region. “Nuo dance” and “laji” were both rather popular in the State of Lu. The fact that these were recorded in Xiang Dang 10^th of The Analects show that “nuo opera” has a very long history in Shandong. The music genres called “you” and “nü”, on the other hand, were popular in the imperial courts of Qi and Lu states. These were recorded in Weizi of The Analects, showing that music and dance performers were all the rage during the time and their acts were staged and passed down the generations. Baixi musical dance became popular in Shandong during the Han dynasty. From the pictorial bricks of the period unearthed in Shandong, one could more or less imagine how popular baixi was during Han. Pictorial bricks from a Han tomb in Beizhai Village in Yinan County and drawings on cloth unearthed from Han tomb number nine at Mount Yinque in Linyin both recorded baixi performance activities. During the Sui dynasty, music performers from the state of Qi are reputed throughout the country. During the Tang dynasty, canjun opera (adjutant play) became popular in the Shandong area. One could say that the musical dance of baixi and comic performances that were popular for a prolonged period was an integral process to the birth and development of Shandong operas.

Zaju, after it took form in Song dynasty, was also spread to Shandong. The format of Yuan zaju, an opera sung with beiqu (northern song), emerged in late Jin dynasty and early Yuan dynasty. Shandong was one of the main areas where the art became popular. In Records of Past Dramatists written by Yuan writer Zhong Sicheng and A Continuation of the Records of Past Dramatists written by Jia Zhongming in early Ming dynasty, 28 native Shandong opera writers were listed; four of them were also competent singers. At the time, a large number of talented zaju playwrights emerged in Dongping and opera became prevalent. The popularity of Yuanqu and Yuan zaju performances was not confined to Dongping; they were also highly popular in Jinan and other areas. Family troupes emerged during this time; they also travelled and performed in different locations. The troupe “Dongping Sanle” was a typical example of these family troupes. The main members of the troupe were Wan Jinbang, who played the dan (female) role; her father Wang Enshen, and her mother Zhao Qianmei. The Minister’s Son Who Became an Opera Artist was a love story between Yuanyan Shouma and Wang Jinbang from Sanle, Dongping. During this period of time, Shandong operas began to mature, and the foundation for its further development was laid.

Shandong opera reached full bloom during the dynasties of Ming and Qing. The Legend of the Precious Sword written by playwright Li Kaixian and The Peach Blossom Fan written by Kong Shangren were particularly distinguished works and the most influential. In terms of performance, the number of professional troupes increased and shows were staged quite frequently. By mid-Qing dynasty, there were dozens of different opera genres actively performed in Shandong. They could be broadly categorised as bangzi singing style, xiansuo singing style and elbow drum singing style, etc.

At present, more than 30 opera genres are popular in Shandong; they could be broadly categorised as bangzi singing style, xiansuo singing style, elbow drum singing style, as well as opera genres formed by folk song and dance and sung-story.

Heze in Shandong was known as Caozhou in ancient times. Situated in the hinterland of the Central Plains, Heze has been reputed as “the hometown of Chinese opera”. The traces of dissemination and evolution of every influential opera genre can be found here. Even rustic tunes and songs, i.e. genres that are regarded as unsuitable for elegant performance halls, were also once performed and heard in Heze. There is rarely other town with such a big variety of opera genres had been spread to. Singing practices is often heard in hangout areas and in the fields. Whether one is old or young, man or woman, townsmen could always sing a tune or two whenever they feel like to.

Heze has a profound culture that gives a lot of nutrients for the growth of opera art. A large variety of timeless opera genres have developed here. Some 10 of the genres are particularly influential – they feature varied styles and the characteristics of different schools, as well as a diverse array of operatic singing voices. The singing could be crude or gentle; subtle or energetic – but they could always please the ears. What is more, countless celebrated performers have emerged for their refined skills in the art form.

Daxianzi Opera is also known as “Daxian Opera”. It is an ancient genre popular in the southwestern Shandong area. The genre is named because sanxian always kicks off in a song. The genre has evolved from the popular tunes and vernacular songs that dated back to the Yuan and Ming dynasties, thanks to the creation, addition and condensation contributed by performers over the past few centuries. It is now developed into a multi-tune vocal school of its own that encompasses the best of folk songs and melodies.

The singing style of Daxianzi Opera is completed by putting the set tunes together. The genre comes with a large variety of singing styles and set tunes, but only some 100 has survived until today. In addition to inheriting the “xiansuo style”, it has also absorbed the singing methods from folk songs such as Shan Po Yang, Suo Nan Zhi, Bang Zhuang Tai, etc. The songs are sung either rustically or exquisitely. A rustic song comes with lots of words and is sung fervently with a hurried tune; an exquisite song comes with fewer words and is sung like flowing clouds and water with a slow tempo. There are high, middle and low pitches in the singing. Although the songs are sung boldly and forcefully, the accompanying music played by sanxian, xidi, dadizi, bamboo dizi, sheng, etc. is beautifully refined and elegant. Some of the specialty instruments used are jianzi trombone, sidaxian (the four big hand fans, i.e. big cymbals called danao and daba), etc. The movements performed in a Daxianzi Opera performance are solid yet exaggerating. Martial scenes are mostly performed with real daggers and spears; the fight sequences are realistic and exciting. There are about 300 plays in the traditional repertoire, but only some 100 has survived until this date. Most of them emphasise on fighting and gestures; the titles are mainly inspired by historical stories and folk tales.

During the reign of Guangxu in the Qing dynasty, when Shanxi Shangdang Bangzi is introduced into Heze of Shandong, the genre gradually evolved into a variation under the influence of the local vernacular. Zaobang Opera is mainly popular in the area of Heze in Shandong and some parts of Hebei and Henan. Because songs of the genre are sung to the rhythms created by clappers made of jujube wood, the official name “Zaobang” came into effect in 1960.

Zaobang Opera is a variation from the bangzi system, and comprises of a rich variety of modes and set tunes. The genre is characterised by fluent melodies and strong expressiveness. Erban (two mode), adagio, daobo (reverse-plucking), erbatong (two-eight brass), duoban (stamp mode) are the major modes. The accompany music is mainly played by the musical saw. As a rare regional genre, the music, performance and repertoire of Zaobang Opera is filled with unique characteristics. The performance is rustic and unrestrained; the singing is intense and resounding yet subtle and lively. The florid ornamentation in the singing of the dan (female) role is exquisite, moving, elegant and highly pleasant to the ears. The natural voice is used in enunciation and the singing is supported by falsetto; the natural voice and the falsettos are very distinctive – the falsetto is vocalised by suddenly lifting the natural voice by one octave. The sound “ah-oh” is added to the end note for the red face and black face roles. Sheng (male roles) and dan (female roles), on the other hand, sing the “yi-ah”; their vocalisation extends to create a very special effect. The repertoire of Zaobang Opera covers a rich selection of contents and styles. More than 80 titles have survived to this date, including Xu Long Executing his Own Son, The Pearl Tower, The Butterfly Chalice, Tianbo Mansion, The Fisherman's Revenge, Wu Hua Ma, The Red Robe, etc.

Also known as “Pingdiao”, Dapingdiao Opera is a regional genre in the Shandong Bangzi singing style. Because the singing is similar to Shandong Bangzi Opera (“high-pitched”) but the pitch is slightly lower, it is called “pingdiao” (flat tone). Because the bangzi used to generate rhythm is about two feet long, the public call it “dayoubang” or “dabangxi”. The genre is now commonly known as “dapingdiao”. It is about 500 years old.

Dapingdiao Opera is popular in the area with Heze as the centre, and the popularity reaches out to five provinces, including Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Jiangsu and Anhui. The genre is said to be popular across five provinces and eight prefectures. Sheng (male) and jing (painted face) are the main roles in Dapingdiao Opera. The stage movements are powerful and rustic, which form a major feature of the genre. The show as a whole is grandiose, in which the singing, gesturing, reciting and martial skills are all emphasised. It is rustic, unrestrained, bold and subtly tender. Dapingdiao Opera has a strong base of set tunes; there are more than 130 of them surviving to this date, including “Shui Shang Piao”, “Gun Longzhu”, etc. Adagio, erbaban (two-eight mode), liushuiban (water flow mode), sanban (three mode), zhengban (formal mode), daosanbo (reverse three plucks), yichuanling (one string of bells) are some of the singing styles. Enunciation is performed in the natural voice and the singing is falsetto. The performer sings one octave higher in shuaiqiang and ends it with the “ou” sound. The overall voice is sonorous, uniquely styled and full or lingering charm. In addition to daxian, erxian and sanxian, the accompanying music is also played by other specialty instruments, such as sidaxian (the four big hand fans), jianzi trombone. The powerful and intense music is particularly effective in depicting the atmosphere of a battlefield from ancient times. A folk song is sung with these words: “Sidaxian, jianzi trombone, you hear them all in Dapingdiao Opera.”

Titles in the traditional repertoire of Dapingdiao Opera are mostly inspired by classic historical stories. “Paodai opera” (an opera in court robes), played by a red face sheng (male) role and a black face jing (painted face) role, is the main type of play in this genre. Plays that feature folk stories or everyday life are rare. Almost 200 titles are frequently staged, including The Flower Pavilion, Zhao Kuangyin Going down the East of the River, Opposition at Xuzhou, Winning Over Jiang Wei, Battling at Luoyang, Taking Cen Peng, etc.

Also known as “erjiaxian”, “lianggenxian”, the genre also has a local alias “dawuyin” (large pentameter). The bow of the principal musical instrument - sixian (also known as sihu) – is made by two bundles of hair from a horse tail (liang); it is played on (jia) the four strings (xian). The art of Liangjiaxian Opera was a popular form of folk performance in southwestern Shandong during the middle of Qianglong’s reign. It has developed from the basis of “huagu dingxiang”(flower-drum operas) and is now more than 200 years old. The singing style is refreshing, lively, rustic and beautiful. It is mainly popular in southwestern Shandong and some of the nearby areas.

Liangjiaxian Opera puts a stronger emphasis on singing than on gesturing. As such, the singing style forms the core of the theatrical layout. Daban, erban, beici, wawa, etc. are some of the basic singing styles of Liangjiaxian Opera. Vocally, with the exception of the laosheng (old male) role singing with a falsetto (erbensang voice), the roles of sheng (male), dan (female), chou (clown) and jing (painted face) all enunciate with their natural voice, which is followed by a melisma in falsetto and the final peak with falsetto. The character of traditional singing performance is kept. The traditional titles of the Liangjiaxian Opera repertoire mainly comprise of mini plays that reflect the life of the common people, which are performed by a sheng, a dan and a chou. There are more than 90 plays in the Liangjiaxian Opera repertoire, including San La Fang, Standing by a Garden Wall, Dull Sister Giving up Her Room, Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai Going down the Mountain, and Lü Mengzheng Rushing for his Examination, etc.

Shandong Bangzi Opera is also known as “high-pitched bangzi”, or “high-pitched” or “gaobang” in short. It is a genre formed from Shanshan Bangzi Opera under the influence of the Shandong vernacular after the art has been introduced into the area. Shandong Bangzi Opera is now more than 400 years old and is one of the most widespread and popular opera genres in Shandong. Because it has been spread to different corners of the province, Shandong Bangzi Opera is known by different names by the audience. For example, in Heze, it is called “Caozhou Bangzi”; in Jining and Wenshang, it is called “Wenshang Bangzi”. The general term is “high-pitched”. The official title of “Shandong Bangzi Opera” was set in 1952.

A Shandong Bangzi Opera performance is characterised by its boldness and unconstrained qualities. The singling style is intense and resounding; all roles of the opera are involved in the performance, which emits richly regional flavours. The music that performers sing to is a variation of the mode structure. The genre has a prolific repertory of modes and set tunes. Adagio, erbaban (two-eight mode), liushuiban (water flow mode), sanban (tempo rubato) are four of the most frequently used vocal style. The male voice is usually sung in the style of “erbensang” (the voice of the two-mode). The vocalisation of the sheng (male) role is more refined; that of the jing (painted face) role is slightly decorated with a coarse sound and an explosive sound. The various female roles all sing by combining the natural voice and falsetto; they sing with oral resonance with a rounded voice and a broad musical range. The accompanying music is mainly played with banhu and erhu, etc. Shandong Bangzi Opera has a richly varied repertoire. There are nearly 100 frequently staged titles, including Opposition at Xitang, Mount Old Sheep, Mount Double Wolves, Story about a Wall, Jade Tiger Pendant, The Ridge of the Five Phoenixes, Historic Match, Opposition at Tongguan, etc. The plays are mostly inspired by folk tales and historic stories.

A basic movement in Shandong regional full-length opera. A character’s walk in big forward strides to show his boldness and agility.

A basic movement in Shandong regional opera. A jump used to show the dexterity of a character in a martial act. The performer must hold his breath and gather his strengths for the grand moment. He cannot open his chest nor curl his legs, and his two arms must not be dropped. The sounds created from beating with his shoes must be crystal clear. He cannot relax after reaching the ground. The sound of landing must be minimised.

A basic physical movement in Shandong regional opera. The performer shows fear or anger on the face according to the requirement of the storyline. The hands and the head tremble rapidly; the two eyes either hold their stare or look straight; the legs stamp or do a single leg squat-step. Qise for the roles of xiaosheng (young male) and dan (female) are basically the same, but are performed without “beard-shaking”, “beard-lifting”, “beard-blowing”, “beard-flicking”

A somersault in Shandong regional opera. The body is raised into mid-air facing forward; the hands hold the ankles; the head is held straight to turn the body one full circle.

A stage-walk in Shandong regional opera. The movements of a performer who has fallen or is kneeling down. The walk can be used to show a character fallen when panicked, struggling when frightened, and begging by kneeling down, etc.

A mace skill used by Zhao Kuangyin, a red face role in the traditional Dapingdiao Opera Down the East of the River when he battles with Huyan Zan. Zhao Kuangyin carries two maces in his hand and flees in panic to the accompanying music. Huyan Zan chases as he plays his whip. The two begins a fight. Zhao is defeated and retreats to a high slope, holding onto his double mace. To guard against the attack by the whip of Huyan Zan, Zhao plays the maces in front of his chest with a crisscross movement, which is called raohua (patterned movement).

To perform the raohua movement, the double mace has to be held in front of the chest for more than one foot. Both hands, with the maces in them, would move in a crisscross pattern, with the head of the maces facing out. When the mace is waved, its path should resemble the silhouette of a handheld fan. The raohua movement has to be performed quicker and quicker to align with the performer’s singing with an increasing tempo. Neither the hands nor the maces should touch the beard and belly piece of the soft armour worn by the actor.

Xu Long is a black face role in Zaobang Opera. This is a colour stunt used by Xu Long in the traditional production Xu Long Executing his Own Son. The prop is a custom-made iron chopper that works like a guillotine. Both the back and the blade of the chopper are made of two layers with a groove for filling in blood. The two parts are connected. In the middle of the chopper is a crescent-shaped indent.

Prior to use, a mixture known as wangzi is prepared with chicken’s blood, vermillion and sugar, which is poured into the crescent-shaped indent of the chopper and then into the blood grove at the back. A soft dough is then used to fill up the indent to create a fake blade. During performance, the person to be executed will be lifted up to the guillotine platform. When the fake blade touches the neck of the person to be executed, it falls off and “wangzi” gushes out. As the imagery was far too frightening, the stunt was no longer used since 1949.

Face mask painting is called “face outlining”. They are mostly applied onto the faces of characters played by jing (painted face) and chou (clown) roles. Early make-up materials used in face mask painting include lead powder, dahong (big red), erhong (second red), silver cinnabar, ink, kerosene, black blusher, golden powder, silver powder, plant oil and pigments in yellow, green, blue, etc.; black, white and red are the primary colours. Quality brushes are the tools for face mask painting make-up.

In the early days, the painted faces of hualian (painted face role) and honglian (red face role) were mostly outlined to become wide and short. From Qing dynasty onwards, since hair on the forehead was shaved, face outlining extended to the top of the forehead. Certain performers would mix pressed juice of wheat germ and grass with green pigments and lead powder to prepare green make-up in the traditional way. In late 1950s, in addition to the water-based powdered make-up, paint used in oil painting is also used for face outlining make-up.

There are two main types of painted face make-up – one for jing (painted face) roles and the other for chou (clown) roles. These are later developed into dahualian (large painted face), erhualian (second painted face), xiaohualian (small painted face) and honglian (red face). Dahualian can be further broken into “black face” and “white face”. There are also a few special forms of face outlining, one for wusheng (martial male roles) and the other for dan (female) roles.

A painted face that is primarily black. The lines for a younger role are straighter and colours used are stronger. For an older role, lines are more curved and colours are lighter. The eyebrows are usually painted white; with the black face, it creates a contrastive effect. The cheeks are usually painted reddish brown to reflect the character’s righteous, broad-minded, principled and unbending qualities. Bao Zheng, Xu Long and Zhang Fei are some examples.

Also known as “cunning white face” or “water white face”. In addition to the rather exaggerating skin tone of the face, the facial expressions patterns of the eyebrows and the face must “take on a form”. The emphasis is to highlight the qualities of a secretly cunning dignitary who has led a well-fed life and always wearing a smile. The white face is applied on characters such as Cao Cao, Pan Renmei, Yan Song, etc.

A painted face that is primarily red. It emphasizes in creating a gentle and even colour throughout the face. The eyebrows of a red face are drawn in white or black; the eyes, as well as other patterns and the wings of the nose are all painted in black. The face is created to depict gallantry, loyalty and staunchness in a character, such as Qin Qiong, Guan Yu, Zhao Kuangyin, etc.

A painted face with rather complicated patterns that highlight the wittiness, bravery, vigour and strong physique of a character. Yang Qilang, Yang Wulang, Xu Liang, Meng Liang, Jiao Zan, etc. are some examples.

Comes with the subcategories of “dried bean curd face”, “date seed face”, “ingot face”, “laochou (older clown) face”, “duck droppings face”, and pictorial face, etc. Red powder is usually applied between the eyebrows and the cheeks. The nose bridge is outlined with lead powder, and usually does not go beyond the corner of the eyes. The eyebrows are drawn in black (laochou roles use lead powder here). Silver cinnabar is applied onto the lips and white corner of the mouth are added later. The rest of the face keeps its original colour. The lead powder area of a laochou (older clown) is larger. The facial features of an old person are usually expressed by a light red blush in the shape of a compressed circle onto the cheeks, with white lines added. Xiaohualian has to be funny and it should highlight the humorous side of a person, as well as a playful look. The face is also used to express abnormality and ugliness.

To exaggerate the bravery, malevolence or special skills of a character. It is an externalisation of the character’s inner activities. Handsome faces are usually created by outlining the patterns of plum flowers and fire wheels on the foreheads or cheeks. These are used to show the character’s identity or qualities. Some would only rub and apply a reddish brown for the foundation, and then outline the eyebrows and eyes in black. This is known as “face rubbing”. Examples are Wu Song in the Bangzi Opera Capturing Fang La, and Chen Xiang, Nezha in other plays.

Generally comes with three types, namely Chou Dan (Clown Female Role) Face Outlining, Handsome Look Face-Outlining, Dan (Female) Role Open Face.

Similar to xiaohualian (small painted face), in which the fun side or abnormal ugliness is highlighted.

Mainly shows the big heart and fearlessness of a dan (female) role. Hong Jinding in the Liuzi Opera San Xi He, “chicken” patterns are outlined on the side of the face, and “white eyelids” are outlined on the top left eyelid; the eyebrows are dark and strong, with colours “winging” on the two sides to create cloud pattern brows and to highlight an optimistic and straightforward character.

Though dan (female) role open face is special, it is not a common style. In the Shandong Bangzi Opera Wuyan Exploring the Underground Cave, the left face of Zhong Wuyan is a handsome look, and the right is painted with a strong black and brown. Two clearly defined sides of a face are created to depict the yin and yang of the character.